Note for Embedded Computing Systems - ECS By Amity Kumar

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Table of Contents Sl.No Unit Page No 1 Embedded Computing 4-34 2 Instruction Sets, CPUs 35-112 3 4 5 6 Bus-Based Computer Systems Program Design and Analysis PART B Real Time Operating System (RTOS) Based Design – 1 RTOS-Based Design - 2 113-142 143-198 199-311 312-320 7 Distributed Embedded Systems 321-330 8 Embedded Systems Development Environment 331-343 Page 3

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UNIT 1 Embedded Computing 1.1 COMPLEX SYSTEMS AND MICROPROCESSORS What is an embedded computer system? Loosely defined, it is any device that includes a programmable computer but is not itself intended to be a general-purpose computer. Thus, a PC is not itself an embedded computing system, although PCs are often used to build embedded computing systems. But a fax machine or a clock built from a microprocessor is an embedded computing system. 1.1.1 Embedding Computers A microprocessor is a single-chip CPU. Very large scale integration (VLSI) stet—the acronym is the name technology has allowed us to put a complete CPU on a single chip since 1970s, but those CPUs were very simple. The first microprocessor- the Intel 4004, was designed for an embedded application, namely, a calculator. The calculator was not a general-purpose computer—it merely provided basic arithmetic functions. However, Ted Hoff of Intel realized that a general-purpose computer programmed properly could implement the required function, and that the computer-on-achip could then be reprogrammed for use in other products as well. Since integrated circuit design was (and still is) an expensive and time- consuming process, the ability to reuse the hardware design by changing the software was a key breakthrough. The HP-35 was the first handheld calculator to perform transcendental functions [Whi72]. It was introduced in 1972, so it used several chips to implement the CPU, rather than a single-chip microprocessor. How- ever, the ability to write programs to perform math rather than having to design digital circuits to perform operations like trigonometric functions was critical to the successful design of the calculator. Page 4

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1.1.2 Characteristics of Embedded Computing Applications Embedded computing is in many ways much more demanding than the sort of programs that you may have written for PCs or workstations. Functionality is important in both general-purpose computing and embedded computing, but embedded applications must meet many other constraints as well. ■ Complex algorithms: The operations performed by the microprocessor may be very sophisticated. For example, the microprocessor that controls an automobile engine must perform complicated filtering functions to opti- mize the performance of the car while minimizing pollution and fuel utilization. ■ User interface: Microprocessors are frequently used to control complex user interfaces that may include multiple menus and many options. The moving maps in Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation are good examples of sophisticated user interfaces. ■ Real time: Many embedded computing systems have to perform in real time— if the data is not ready by a certain deadline, the system breaks. In some cases, failure to meet a deadline is unsafe and can even endanger lives. In other cases, missing a deadline does not create safety problems but does create unhappy customers—missed deadlines in printers, for example, can result in scrambled pages. ■ Multirate: Not only must operations be completed by deadlines, but many embedded computing systems have several real-time activities going on at the same time. They may simultaneously control some operations that run at slow rates and others that run at high rates. Multimedia applications are prime examples of multirate behavior. The Page 5

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audio and video portions of a multimedia stream run at very different rates, but they must remain closely synchronized. Failure to meet a deadline on either the audio or video portions spoils the perception of the entire presentation. ■ Manufacturing cost: The total cost of building the system is very important in many cases. Manufacturing cost is determined by many factors, including the type of microprocessor used, the amount of memory required, and the types of I/O devices. ■ Power and energy: Power consumption directly affects the cost of the hardware, since a larger power supply may be necessary. Energy con- sumption affects battery life, which is important in many applications, as well as heat consumption, which can be important even in desktop applications. 1.1.3 Why Use Microprocessors? There are many ways to design a digital system: custom logic, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), and so on. Why use microprocessors? There are two answers: ■ Microprocessors are a very efficient way to implement digital systems. ■ Microprocessors make it easier to design families of products that can be built to provide various feature sets at different price points and can be extended to provide new features to keep up with rapidly changing markets. 1.1.4 The Physics of Software Page 6