Note for Database Management System - DBMS by p v
- Database Management System - DBMS
- Note
- Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University - AKTU
- Computer Science Engineering
- B.Tech
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DBMS Department of Computer Science & Engineering B. Tech (CSE) UNIT-2 Relational Algebra & Calculus: 1. Preliminaries: A query language is a language in which user requests to retrieve some information from the database. The query languages are considered as higher level languages than programming languages. Query languages are of two types, Procedural Language Non-Procedural Language 1. In procedural language, the user has to describe the specific procedure to retrieve the information from the database. Example: The Relational Algebra is a procedural language. 2. In non-procedural language, the user retrieves the information from the database without describing the specific procedure to retrieve it. Example: The Tuple Relational Calculus and the Domain Relational Calculus are non-procedural languages. EF.Codd's 12 Rules: Dr Edgar F. Codd, after his extensive research on the Relational Model of database systems, came up with twelve rules of his own, which according to him, a database must obey in order to be regarded as a true relational database. These rules can be applied on any database system that manages stored data using only its relational capabilities. This is a foundation rule, which acts as a base for all the other rules. Rule 1: Information Rule
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The data stored in a database, may it be user data or metadata, must be a value of some table cell. Everything in a database must be stored in a table format. Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule Every single data element (value) is guaranteed to be accessible logically with a combination of table-name, primary-key (row value), and attribute-name (column value). No other means, such as pointers, can be used to access data. Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of NULL Values The NULL values in a database must be given a systematic and uniform treatment. This is a very important rule because a NULL can be interpreted as one the following − data is missing, data is not known, or data is not applicable. Rule 4: Active Online Catalog The structure description of the entire database must be stored in an online catalog, known as data dictionary, which can be accessed by authorized users. Users can use the same query language to access the catalog which they use to access the database itself. Rule 5: Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule A database can only be accessed using a language having linear syntax that supports data definition, data manipulation, and transaction management operations. This language can be used directly or by means of some application. If the database allows access to data without any help of this language, then it is considered as a violation. Rule 6: View Updating Rule All the views of a database, which can theoretically be updated, must also be updatable by the system. Rule 7: High-Level Insert, Update, and Delete Rule A database must support high-level insertion, updation, and deletion. This must not be limited to a single row, that is, it must also support union, intersection and minus operations to yield sets of data records.
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Rule 8: Physical Data Independence The data stored in a database must be independent of the applications that access the database. Any change in the physical structure of a database must not have any impact on how the data is being accessed by external applications. Rule 9: Logical Data Independence The logical data in a database must be independent of its user’s view (application). Any change in logical data must not affect the applications using it. For example, if two tables are merged or one is split into two different tables, there should be no impact or change on the user application. This is one of the most difficult rule to apply. Rule 10: Integrity Independence A database must be independent of the application that uses it. All its integrity constraints can be independently modified without the need of any change in the application. This rule makes a database independent of the front-end application and its interface. Rule 11: Distribution Independence The end-user must not be able to see that the data is distributed over various locations. Users should always get the impression that the data is located at one site only. This rule has been regarded as the foundation of distributed database systems. Rule 12: Non-Subversion Rule If a system has an interface that provides access to low-level records, then the interface must not be able to subvert the system and bypass security and integrity constraints. Relation Data Model: Relational data model is the primary data model, which is used widely around the world for data storage and processing. This model is simple and it has all the properties and capabilities required to process data with storage efficiency.
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Concepts Tables − In relational data model, relations are saved in the format of Tables. This format stores the relation among entities. A table has rows and columns, where rows represents records and columns represent the attributes. Tuple − A single row of a table, which contains a single record for that relation is called a tuple. Relation instance − A finite set of tuples in the relational database system represents relation instance. Relation instances do not have duplicate tuples. Relation schema − A relation schema describes the relation name (table name), attributes, and their names. Relation key − Each row has one or more attributes, known as relation key, which can identify the row in the relation (table) uniquely. Attribute domain − Every attribute has some pre-defined value scope, known as attribute domain. Types of Integrity Constraint : o Integrity constraints are set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information. o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating and other processes have to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected. o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.
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